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The History of Ocean Explorationand Marine Sciences
The History of Oceanography – Why Study It?
Chapter 2 Pages 2-2 to 2-3
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The History of Oceanography - Why Study It?
nThree very good reasons to learn thehistory of oceanography:
The history of oceanography isconnected to the world’soverall history.
Oceanography’s past helps usunderstand why and howpeople apply marine sciencestoday.
It is interesting.
The History of Oceanography – Why Study It?
Chapter 2 Pages 2-2 to 2-3
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The History of Oceanography - Why Study It?
nThe history of oceanography can bedivided into four stages:
Ancient Uses and Explorations(5000 B.C. - 800 A.D.)
The Middle Ages (800 - 1400)
European Voyages of Discovery(1400 - 1700)
The Birth of Marine Science(1700 - 1900)
The History of Oceanography – Why Study It?
Chapter 2 Pages 2-2 to 2-3
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Ancient Uses and Explorations(5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-4 to 2-15
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Prehistory and the Rise of Seafaring
nThree primary reasons forearly civilization to interactwith the ocean:
To obtain food.
Trade with other cultures.
To discover new lands.
nThe earliest recorded seavoyage appears to be 3200B.C. under the auspices ofEgyptian Pharaoh Snefru.
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-4 to 2-5
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Ancient PhoenicianExplorations and Discoveries
nThe Phoenicians contributed toocean exploration byestablishing the first traderoutes throughout theMediterranean, even as farnorth as Great Britain.
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-5 to 2-6
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Ancient Polynesian Explorationsand Discoveries
nThe significance of Polynesian seafaring is that it isthe earliest known regular, long-distance, open-oceansailing beyond sight of land.
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-7 to 2-8
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Ancient Polynesian Explorationsand Discoveries
nSpreading eastward from Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa,Polynesians settled islands in an area of about 26million square kilometers (10 million square miles).
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-7 to 2-8
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Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries
nThe Greeks used references on shore to navigate.This is called piloting.
As seafaring advanced they learned to use thesun, constellations, the North Star and seaconditions to navigate in the open ocean.
The Greeks knew the Earth was a sphere, not flat.
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
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Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries
nPytheas noted that he could predicttides in the Atlantic based on thephases of the moon.
He could determine how farNorth or South one was from theNorth Star by measuring theangle between the horizon andthe North Star.
This was a significantimprovement in navigation.
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
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Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries
nEratosthenes (264-194 B.C.) is credited with twocontributions:
He calculated the Earth’s circumference.
He invented the first latitude/longitude system.
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
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Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries
nIn 127 B.C., Hipparchus improved Eratosthenes’maps by inventing the regular grid system.
nIn 450 B.C., Herodotus published a detailed history ofGreece’s struggles with the Persian Empire. Thiswork was significant because it was one of theearliest published maps of the world the Greeksknew.
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
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Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries
nIn 63 B.C.-24 A.D., Strabo published a 17-book workcalled Geographic that contained a map expandingknowledge/accuracy about the world.
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
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Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries
nIn 100-168 A.D., Ptolemy developed the first knownmap to show a portion of the Earth as a sphere onflat paper.
It showed latitude/longitude by dividing the gridinto degrees, minutes, and seconds of the arc.
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
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Measuring The Size of theEarth – Ancient Greek Style
Step 1:
7.2°/800km =360°/Earth circumference in km
Step 2:
7.2° x Earth circumference in km =800 km x 360°
Step 3 - Solve:
Earth circumference in km =800 km x 360°/7.2°
Earth circumference in km =288,000° km/7.2°
Earth circumference in km =40,000 km (24,840 miles)
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Page 2-11
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Latitude/Longitude System
nThe purpose of the latitude and longitude mappingsystem is to identify specific locations on the Earth’ssurface, even in the absence of landmarks.
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-12 to 2-14
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Latitude/Longitude System
nLatitude Lines:
Also called parallels.
Run east-west.
0º parallel is alsocalled the equator.
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-12 to 2-14
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Latitude/Longitude System
nLongitude Lines:
Also called meridians.
Run north-south.
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-12 to 2-14
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Latitude/Longitude System
nPrime Meridian is locatedon the longitude of theRoyal Naval Observatoryin Greenwich, England.
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-12 to 2-14
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Latitude/Longitude System
nFurther Accuracy:
Degrees are subdivided into 60 minutes, minutesare subdivided into 60 seconds.
Most scientists use decimal degrees.
Titanic Location49.9469˚ W41.7325˚ NAs expressed inDecimal Degrees
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-12 to 2-14
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The Middle Ages (800 A.D.-1400)
The Middle Ages (800 A.D. – 1400)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-16 to 2-19
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The European Middle Ages
nDecline of the Roman Empire broke Europe intomany isolated communities.
This breakup hindered communication of scientificdiscoveries and knowledge.
The Catholic Church rose to power, which mayhave influenced the communication of scientificdiscoveries.
nAlso known as the Dark Ages because during thistime further advancements in the knowledge ofgeography and science were suppressed in Europe.
Little ocean exploration by Europeans was made,only trade continued.
The Middle Ages (800 A.D. – 1400)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-16
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Viking Explorations and Discoveries
nThe Vikings were the only people with significantexploration taking place in Europe during the DarkAges:
They established trade routes throughout Britain,Ireland, Southern Europe, North Africa, andCentral Asia.
In the 9th century there was a global warming thatfreed the North Atlantic of ice allowing the Vikingsto explore westward discovering Iceland,Greenland, and North America.
The Middle Ages (800 A.D. – 1400)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-17
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Chinese Explorations and Discoveries
nThe Chinese were very active explorers during theMiddle Ages and were responsible for manyimportant contributions.
Probably the most important of their discoverieswas the magnetic compass dating about 1000A.D. and in widespread use about 1125.
Europe’s first reference to the compass was in1190 in a poem, but was not widely used untilthe 1400s.
The Middle Ages (800 A.D. – 1400)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-18
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Chinese Explorations and Discoveries
nBy the mid 1400s in China, shipbuildingwas well established.
Chinese ships from that period hadcentral rudders and watertightcompartments – these are part oftoday’s modern ships.
The Middle Ages (800 A.D. – 1400)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-18
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European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-19 to 2-22
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The End of the Middle Ages anda Route Around Africa
nThe period of 1400-1700 is called the Renaissance. A newinterest in long ocean expeditions and travel in the 15th centurywas motivated by economics, politics and religion.
nThree explorers tried to establish a route to the East aroundAfrica:
The first of these was Prince Henry the Navigator ofPortugal in the early 1400s. He went down the west coastof Africa, but did not find a route around the Cape of GoodHope.
The second was Bartholomeu Dias who completed avoyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1487, but did notmake it all the way to India.
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-19 to 2-20
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The End of the Middle Ages anda Route Around Africa
nThe third was Vasco da Gamma (1469-1524). He ledthe first expedition around the Cape of Good Hope allthe way to India.
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-19 to 2-20
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Exploration of the New World
nLike other explorers of the time, ChristopherColumbus was seeking a route to Asia for tradewith Europe.
Columbus’ estimate of the world’s size was toosmall because he used Ptolemy’s estimates. Thisis why he thought he could reach India easier bysailing west instead of sailing east.
When he landed on a Caribbean island, hethought he’d reached India. It was later realizedhe’d found a continent unknown to Europeans.
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-20 to 2-22
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Exploration of the New World
nBetween 1454-1512, Amerigo Vespucci voyaged toSouth America.
He explored much of the east coast, the mouth ofthe Amazon River, and is credited as the firstEuropean to recognize that South America was anew continent.
The Americas are named in honor of Vespucci.
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-20 to 2-22
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Exploration of the New World
nIn the early 1500s, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa led anexpedition that crossed the Isthmus of Panama anddiscovered the Pacific Ocean. Balboa was the firstEuropean to sail in the Pacific.
News that the Pacific lay beyond the Americasrenewed the hope that one could sail around theworld west-to-east.
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-20 to 2-22
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Exploration of the New World
nIn 1519, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellanled the first expedition to circumnavigate the world.He had five ships and about 260 men.
Magellan died in the Philippines in a fight withislanders.
One ship and 18 mencompleted thejourney in 1522.
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-20 to 2-22
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Exploration of the New World
nThe second successful circumnavigation of the worldwas made in 1577 by Francis Drake.
He left England for the New World with thepurpose of raiding Spanish ships and settlementsfor treasure.
Drake returned to England in 1580 where he wasknighted for his exploits as well as for bringingback treasure and spices worth a fortune.
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-20 to 2-22
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The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-23 to 2-32
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Cook’s Expeditions
nThe voyages of Captain James Cookreceive credit as the first seaexpeditions devoted to methodical,scientific oceanography:
His reports changed the westernview of the world.
He discovered Australia, NewZealand, many islands in theSouth Pacific, the HawaiianIslands, the West Coast of the USand Canada, the Bering Strait andthe Antarctic Circle.
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-23 to 2-26
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Cook’s Expeditions
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-23 to 2-26
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Cook’s Expeditions
nA major contribution to Cook’s voyageswas the invention of the chronometer:
In 1735, John Harrison invented a clockthat runs accurately at sea. This made itpossible to determine longitude accurately.
Harrison
H1
H4
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-23 to 2-26
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The United States Exploring Expedition
nUnder command of Lt. CharlesWilkes, it was one of the firstsignificant scientific expeditionslaunched by the US:
The objective was to explorethe southern Atlantic andPacific Oceans, to collectspecimens, and to map,illustrate and provide text todocument their discoveries.
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-27
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The United States Exploring Expedition
nThe most outstanding achievement of the USExploring Expedition was proving the existence ofAntarctica.
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-27
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Matthew Maury:Father of Physical Oceanography
nBetween 1842-1855, Matthew Maurypublished many detailed works on seanavigation. He earned global acclaimfor his work and his data was adoptedworldwide:
In 1855, he published The PhysicalGeography of the Sea, which is nowconsidered the first textbook onmodern oceanography and he isremembered today as the fatherof physical oceanography.
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-28
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Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle
nThe Beagle began its five-year voyage with CharlesDarwin as the ship’s naturalist in 1831. The H.M.S.Beagle ultimately circled the Earth.
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-29 to 2-30
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Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle
nDarwin noted that coral grows in relatively shallow,warm, upper depths:
But, coral reefs extend deeper than coral grows.Darwin observed the massive reefs must formwhen the sea floor slowly sinks and coralgrows upward from its base to remain inshallow water.
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-29 to 2-30
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Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle
nDarwin is renowned for his theories on naturalselection and the evolution of species.
nIn 1859, he published On The Origin of Species ByMeans Of Natural Selection.
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-29 to 2-30
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The Challenger Expedition
nThe Challenger expedition (1872-1876), is knownand recognized as the first devoted entirely to marinescience:
The two men responsible for the mission wereScottish professor, Sir CharlesWyville Thomson and Britishnaturalist, Sir John Murray.
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-30 to 2-32
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The Challenger Expedition
nAmong its accomplishments and discoveries, the expedition:
Took the first soundings deeper than 4,000 meters (13,123feet) – 8,200 meters (26,900 feet) in the Marianas Trench.
Captured biological samples in midwater and along thebottom with a towed device.
Discovered marine organisms in the deepest parts of theocean, contrary to popular belief at the time.
Sampled and illustrated plankton in varioushabitats and depths not previously studied.
Cataloged and identified 715 new generaand 4,717 new species.
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Chapter 2 Pages 2-30 to 2-32
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Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-33 to 2-48
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The Oceanography Explosion
nThe Industrial Revolution spearheaded the growthand expansion of marine sciences. This included:
Better ships made of iron with steam engines.
Improvements in the design and building ofresearch equipment.
The advent of the submarine.
Global conflict helping toaccelerate research inscience and technology.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-33 to 2-34
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Three Expeditions
nThe German Meteor Expedition (1925)
Crossed the Atlantic 14 times in twoyears.
Data collected established patternsfor ocean water circulation, nutrientdispersal, and plankton growth.
Primary accomplishment wasmapping the Atlantic seafloorwith echo-sounding technology.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-34 to 2-35
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Three Expeditions
nThe United States Atlantis Expedition – 1931
The first ship specifically designed and built forocean studies.
Atlantis added to the work of the Meteor as well asconfirmed the existence of the Mid-Atlantic Ridgeand mapped it.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-34 to 2-35
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Three Expeditions
nThe H.M.S. Challenger II Expedition – 1951
Mission to measure the depths of the Atlantic,Pacific, and Indian oceans.
Used eco-sounding technology for mapping.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-34 to 2-35
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Three Expeditions
nThe H.M.S. Challenger II Expedition – 1951
Challenger II’s most noted discovery wasfinding the deepest known part of the ocean.At about 11,000 meters (36,000 feet) deep, thisis still the deepest known place in the world.
This spot, located in the Marianas Trench, wasnamed Challenger Deep inhonor of the firstChallenger expedition.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-34 to 2-35
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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
nHow the ocean was studied was changed forever bythe submersibles and self-contained diving:
Instead of grabbing samples blindly, a scientistcould pick specific ones.
Scientists could take delicate samples withoutdamaging them and living organisms withoutkilling them.
Scientists can directly observe the geology, life,and other phenomena without taking any samples.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
nThree types of submersibles used for underwaterresearch:
Bathysphere - operated only vertically.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
nThree types of submersibles used for underwaterresearch:
Bathyscaphe - operated much like a blimp airship by releasing ballast and had a small electricmotor to give it limited horizontal mobility.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
nThree types of submersibles used for underwaterresearch:
Deep-diving submersibles - state of the art today,far less fragile than bathyscaphes, easier tolaunch and use in rough seas.
This makes them suitable for more varied types ofresearch. Some even have robotic arms.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
nIn 1840, Augustus Siebe introduced the first practicaldive equipment; hard-hat diving that supplied air fromthe surface through a hose.
Used mainly for underwater construction, salvage,and ship maintenance.Limited because it is heavyand requires a supportteam and vessel.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
nIn 1878, Englishman Henry Fleuss, introduced thefirst workable self-contained underwater breathingapparatus, called scuba today.
nIn 1943, Jacques Cousteauintroduced the first practical scuba.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
nScuba is simple, relatively inexpensive and quiteportable, but places limits on depth and duration ofthe dive.
nScuba also has the advantage of dexterity.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
nHardsuits, such as the Newt Suit, merge thetechnologies of scuba and submersibles, protectingthe wearer from pressure but allowing almost fullmobility, but they are more costly and complex thanscuba.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites andElectronic Navigation
nTechnology such as electronics and space travelhave provided important contributions tooceanography.
nThese include electronic navigation, remotelyoperated vehicles (ROV), autonomous underwatervehicles (AUV), drifters and ocean observationsatellites.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites andElectronic Navigation
nRemotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) becamecommon in the late 1970s. ROV’s are:
A small, unmanned submarine with propellers,video camera, and an umbilical to the surface or toa submersible.
An economical way to match the capabilities of asubmersible and the dexterity of a scuba diver.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites andElectronic Navigation
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites andElectronic Navigation
nAutonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) are:
Untethered robotic devices propelled through thewater by self-contained power systems.
Piloted by an onboard computer.
Launched from the surface and are maneuverablein three dimensions.
Propelled by self-contained power systems.Others use the difference in water layertemperatures to glide.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites andElectronic Navigation
nAUVs sample the ocean along precisepreprogrammed underwater paths.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites andElectronic Navigation
nDrifters are instrument packages that measuretemperature, salinity, pressure and currents.
nDrifters:
Collect information and transmit it, with their exactposition, to a satellite system.
Float at the surface while others descend as deepas 2,000 meters (6,560 feet) for programmeddurations, then rise to the surface to transmit theirdata.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites andElectronic Navigation
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites andElectronic Navigation
nSatellites orbit the Earth and assist oceanographerswith global observations of the ocean.
nSatellites provide continuous measurements ofvariables such as surface height, shape, temperatureand color, over the entire planet.
nThey are an effective way for oceanographers to lookat very large areas of the world in a very short period.
nInformation gathered from satelliteshas largely replaced measurementstaken directly at sea.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites andElectronic Navigation
nThe first electronic navigation came into use in thelate 1960s. LORAN (LOng RAnge Navigation).Accuracy varied with distance from the transmitters.
nToday we use GPS - Global Positioning System.
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47