Lecture 9:Generation ofCrew ResourcesManagement
Introduction
•Term generation is used in describingthe changes in CRM over the last 3decades.
•Generation refers to the process ofgrowth & development.
•Till now, CRM have arrive the 6thgeneration.
1st Generation2nd Generation
3rd Generation4th Generation
5th Generation6th Generation
Three final image in the deadlyaccidents that started(initiated) CRM
1972: Eastern L-1011 crashed during approach in MiamiAirport
Flight crew's failure to monitor the flight instruments during amalfunction of the landing gear position indicator system. The crewrealised their error too late and were too low to recover. Of the 163persons on board 112 were killed in the crash.
1st major air disaster that initiated CRM(Loss of Situational Awareness)
1977: Pan-Am Boeing 747 and KLM Boeing 747 runwaycollision, Tenerife Airport
The KLM B747 Captain initiated a takeoff without permissionwhile the Pan Am B747 aircraft was using the runway to taxiout for landing.
337 peoples on the Pan Am B747and 248 on the KLM B747 werekilled.
2nd major air disaster that initiatedCRM (Poor Communication)
1978: UAL 173 DC-8 crashed during approach nearPortland
First Officer Rodrick Beebe:
Portland Tower United 173, Mayday! We're…the enginesare flaming out…we're going down. We're not going tobe able to make the airport.
•Captain fixation on landing gearproblem.
•His crews (F/O & F/E) informedabout low fuel condition.
•Captain ignored them ormisunderstood them & continue tosolve landing gear problem.
•The DC-8 ran out of fuel and finallycrashed.
•189 Peoples, 10 killed, 23 seriouslyinjured
3rd major air disaster that initiatedCRM (Loss of SA & PoorCommunication)
Why need CRM?
•Many accidents result not from a technicalmalfunction but most accidents are causedby the inability of crews to respondappropriately to the situation in which theyfind themselves.
•For example, inadequate communicationsbetween crew members and other partiescould lead to a loss of situationalawareness, a breakdown in teamwork in theaircraft, and ultimately to a wrong decisionor series of decisions which result in aserious incident.
First CRMgenerationconcepts
1st CRM generation
•Develop from a workshop conductedby NASA in 1979.
•1st training was initiated by UnitedAirlines in 1981.
•Initially the term was CockpitResource Management (CRM).
•1st CRM generation concerns are
–Need to use the right people
–Need to use right materials.
–Need to use right equipments.
–Need to use right technology.
1st CRM generation
OBJECTIVES:
•To reduce pilot error by improvinghuman resources on the flight deck.
•To fix the “Wrong Stuff” leadersand make junior crew membersassertive.
* “Wrong Stuff” term refers to thecaptain’s failure to accept input fromjunior crewmembers.
•To focus on individual managementstyle & interpersonal style.
1st CRM generation
•1st generation training was conductedin the classroom and also in simulatorsettings called Line OrientatedFlight Training (LOFT).
•Skills taught in the classroomsetting were adapted to trainingscenarios in simulators wheretechniques could be practicedwithout danger.
Second CRMgenerationconcepts
2nd CRM generation
•In 1986, NASA developed anotherCRM workshop.
•Change in name from “Cockpit” to‘Crew Resource Management’.
•Realized that better outcomes couldbe produced if the entire crew wasinvolved.
•Name change in order toacknowledge the roll of cabin crewsalong with ground handling,maintenance, and dispatching crews.
2nd CRM generation
OBJECTIVES:
•To improve team building (use ofteam-building exercises)
•To focus on Situational Awareness(SA) and stress management.
•To break the chain of errors thatcould cause an accident.
•Much of the training that originatedin this era continues to be used,either in stand-alone modules, orcombined within newer programs.
Third CRMgenerationconcepts
3rd CRM generation
•The so-called, CRM 3rd generation evolvedduring the early 1990s.
•Efforts began to integrate CRM withTECHINICAL TRAINING.
•Also to focus on specific skills andbehaviors that pilots could use to functionmore effectively.
•Almost courses focus on the need toimprove flight crew.
•Several airlines began to include modulesaddressing CRM issues in the use of‘FLIGHT DECK AUTOMATION’
3rd CRM generation
•Flight deck automation meansmachines on the commercialtransport aircraft flight deck thatperform functions (not pilot).
•Current flight deck automationincludes autopilots, flightmanagement systems, electronicflight instrument systems, andwarning and alerting systems.
Airbus A320 GlassCockpit
“The magic roundabout in theUK”
7
“The magic roundabout in theUK”
•This slide shows one of the teachingslides “The magic roundabout in theUK” - Five roundabouts centredaround another.
•It is an example of an excessivelycomplicated system lead to error.
Fourth CRMgenerationconcepts
4th CRM generation
•4th generation saw the change ofCRM training to organisationsthemselves.
•The first move to recognise thatCRM training has to be tailored tothe organisation.
•Aim is to solve the problems ofhuman error by making CRM anintegral part of all flight training.
Fifth CRMgenerationconcepts
5th CRM generation
•Begin in 1996, 5th generation CRMshowed great maturity in the concept.
•Assume human error is pervasive andcannot be totally eliminated.
•Focus on error management with thedevelopment of error countermeasures.(an action taken to counteract a danger)
•There are three lines of defence in thesecounter measures.
–1: Firstly we can attempt to minimise error
–2: Secondly we can try to trap the errors, and
–3: Thirdly we can mitigate errors.
3 lines of defence tocounter act the dangers
The point of the exercise is to achieve safety –which is a major determinant of morale.
5th CRM generation
•For example, consider an advanced aircraftexperiences CFIT because wrong data isentered to Flight Management System(FMS).
•1st :A careful briefing on procedurescombined with communication &verification of FMC entries can avoid theerror.
• 2nd: Cross-checking entries should trapthe error.
•3rd : Inquiry & monitoring of the positionshould result in mitigating the errorconsequences before CFIT.
Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT)
•CFIT describes about aircraft collision, underpilot control, inadvertently flies into terrain, anobstacle, or water.
•The pilots are generally unaware of the dangeruntil it is too late.
Flight ManagementSystem (FMS)
•The flight management system (FMS) isthe avionics that holds the flight plan, andallows the pilot to modify as required inflight.
•Given the position and the flight plan, theFMS guides the aircraft along the flightplan.
•The FMS is normally controlled through asmall screen and a keyboard.
Sixth CRMgenerationconcepts
6th CRM generation
•Initiated in 2001.
•Finally today we are sitting with 6thgeneration CRM.
•This is the latest generation that everyairliner in the world practicing it.
•6th generation CRM looks beyond theaircraft.
•It looks at controllers, weatherforecasters, dispatchers and commandstructures.
6th CRM generation
•This is where A CRM comes into play.
•Anyone who is involved with theaircraft’s mission, anyone who is part ofthe crew, has a role to play in CRM.
•6th generation CRM concepts are basedon Threat & Error Management (TEM).
•It was developed to help understand,and explain, the interaction betweensafety and human performance, withinan operational context
Topics in 6th CRMgeneration are:
•Communication and coordinationinside and outside the cockpit
•Decision making
•Situational Awareness
•Stress, stress management, fatigue
•Workload management
•Human error and reliability, errorchain, error prevention anddetection
•Execution and Error Management
Summary
•CRM is not and never will be the mechanismto eliminate error and assure absolutesafety in a high risk endeavor such asaviation.
•Error is an inevitable result of the naturallimitations of human performance and thefunction of complex systems.
•CRM is one of an array of tools thatorganizations can use to manage error.
•When CRM is viewed in the context of theaviation system, its contributions andlimitations can be understood.
•What we do know is that the rationale forhuman factors training is as strong now asit was when the term CRM was first coined