Teaching Today: An Introduction to Education 8th edition

Teaching Today:An Introduction to Education8th edition

Part 2: Working withStudents

Chapter 6: What Is Taughtand How Is It Taught?

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Curriculum and Instruction Foundations

The answer to what is worth knowing and how thisknowledge can be taught is influenced by thefollowing factors:

the role of the school in society

philosophies of education

how individuals learn

traditions and history of education

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Focus Questions

What factors define what is worth knowing?

Does the school have a role in teaching values,developing character and ethics?

Should knowledge focus on the values of our societyor should a world-view be taught?

How should teachers teach?

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part I: The Curriculum

Curriculum has come to mean a sequence oflearning experiences, or the plan of study to befollowed to reach educational goals (formal ).

Curriculum is also defined as all experiences in theeducational setting (informal).

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part I: The Curriculum

The Formal Curriculum refers to the explicit orplanned curriculum; a series of planned eventsintended to have educational consequences.

However, individuals do not learn information exactlyas it is presented to them, giving rise to the term“inner curriculum.”

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part I: The Curriculum

Inner Curriculum – the brain tries to “make sense”out of what is taught in light of what it already knowsand as a result individuals may experience thecurriculum differently from others. This individualinternalization as learners process new informationis called the “inner curriculum.”

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part I: The Curriculum

Hidden Curriculum – The content, rules in theclassroom, the organization of the class, and theinformation that is not taught send messages tostudents about what is important and appropriate.These messages that are sent during dailyencounters have been termed “hidden curriculum.”

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part I: The Curriculum

Hidden curriculum, continued

–What are some of the hidden messages youlearned in school?

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part I: The Curriculum

Hidden Curriculum, continued

–How can teachers guard against sendingunwanted hidden messages?

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part I: The Curriculum

Curriculum orientation: “How do we decide whatcontent is important?”

Learner-centered orientation states that we teachto the needs and interests of students.

Needs-of-the-society orientation identifies what isimportant by what society needs.

Academic-subjects orientation emphasizestraditional school subjects.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part I: The Curriculum

What Do You Think?

–Which curriculum orientation is the one thatseems to be closest to your views? Why?

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part I: The Curriculum

What Do You Think?

–Can elements of the different orientations becombined?

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part I: The Curriculum

What Do You Think?

–What do you see as the current curriculumemphasis?

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part I: The Curriculum

 Contemporary Influences on Curriculum include:

–Common Emphases

–State Curriculum Standards

–High-Stakes Testing

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Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: Instruction

The question of how important knowledge can betaught to the young is important to teachers because

–Research indicates that teachers are the mostsignificant variable that influences academicperformance

–Effective teaching requires expertise in instructionaldesign and delivery (Good & Brophy, 2004).

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: InstructionTeachers’ Dispositions

The question of who can teach the young focuseson teachers’ dispositions, or perceptions andattitudes that shape behaviors.

These perceptions are influenced by the values andattitudes of the individual, therefore teachers’dispositions will influence how and when they utilizeteaching skills.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: InstructionTeachers’ Dispositions (continued)

If you view teaching as a “technical act” thenteaching is merely learning the “right” response topredictable issues / problems.

If you view teaching as a “complex interpersonal act”involving human desires and motivations, thenteaching is applying professional judgment to uniquesituations.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: InstructionTeachers’ Dispositions (continued)

Some important beliefs that influence teacher perceptions andbehavior include:

All students are worthy individuals

Diversity strengthens education / society

Students/teachers must be lifelong learners

Learners feel competent and worthy

All students are able to succeed

Lessons should encourage learners to be active in creatingtheir own knowledge

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: InstructionActive Teaching

Active teaching involves taking a direct role inleading the class;

Active teaching is associated with enhancedlearner achievement (Good & Brophy)

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: InstructionActive Teaching (continued)

Active teaching includes:

organizing content

motivating students

presenting information

monitoring and checking understanding

assessing student learning

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: InstructionProgram Planning

Program planning translates into fewer behavioralproblems and a more successful lesson.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: InstructionProgram Planning (continued)

Program Planning responsibilities include:

1.Matching instruction to learners’ characteristics,

2.conducting task analyses to identify anappropriate beginning point and a logicalsequence for instruction,

3.specifying learning intentions,

4.and matching programs to learner characteristics

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: InstructionTask Analysis

Task analysis involves identifying appropriatebeginning points and logical sequences ofinstruction.

Task analysis enables the teacher to determinewhat prerequisite knowledge and skill is needed toachieve success.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: InstructionLearning Intentions

Learning intentions are sometime called lessonobjectives.

Learning intentions identify what learners shouldbe able to do as a result of learning the content.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: InstructionConstructivism

Constructivist teachers believe that learning isconstructed by the brain as it seeks to relate newknowledge to prior knowledge.

Many constructivist teachers use cooperativelearning – small groups of learners working togetherto complete a given task.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: InstructionConstructivism (continued)

Constructivism emphasizes concepts and ideasrather than small bits of information.

Use mastery goals rather than performance goals.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: InstructionTeacher Clarity

One of the most important dimensions of teacherclarity is the verbal and nonverbal teacher behavior.

Nonverbal teacher behavior has several elements.The paralanguage influences what we hear and howwe interpret it.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: InstructionTeacher Clarity (continued)

Paralanguage communication is voice intonation,precision, articulation, and the rate of speaking.

Where does paralanguage come from?

What other non-verbal behaviors affectcommunication?

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: InstructionInquiry

Lower-Level Questions

–Questions that ask forrecall of information

–Multiple choice, matching,completion, true and falsetests

Higher-Level Questions

–Questions that require moresophisticated thoughtprocesses such as applicationand analysis

–Open-ended questions,essays, practical application ofinformation, constructing,comparing/ contrasting testsquestions

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: Instruction

Clarity of Questions involves avoiding questionsthat can be responded to in many ways.

Wait Time is the interval between the question andthe response.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Part II: InstructionHomework and Learning

What is the role of homework in learning?

Can too much homework be detrimental to learning?How?

How can you determine how much homework toassign?

How can you gain support from parents forhomework policies?

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Summary

Curriculum refers to the selection and organization ofcontent and learning experiences. It differs fromInstruction, which deals with specific means ofachieving the general plan described in a particularcurriculum.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Summary (continued)

Standardized tests compare scores of students in aclassroom with norms.

State curriculum standards specify kinds of contentrequired in elementary schools.

Learner-centered curricula are based on the ideathat learner interests and needs should drive thecurriculum.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Summary (continued)

Needs-of-society curricula seek to produce learnerscapable of maintaining and extending broad socialgoals.

Academic-subjects curricula organize programs intoacademic disciplines such as mathematics.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Summary (continued)

The Inner Curriculum is the learning that resultswhen past experiences meld with classroominformation.

The Hidden Curriculum includes teachers’ behaviorsand other aspects of the school setting that suggestwhat learners should be doing.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Summary (continued)

Teacher dispositions influence teacher effectiveness.

Active teaching includes providing new information,monitoring progress, providing opportunities forpractice, and re-teaching content to those who needadditional help mastering material.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Summary (continued)

Constructivist teaching assumes that young peopleare driven to interpret information they encounter.

Teacher clarity is associated with studentachievement.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Summary (continued)

Sometimes homework affects learners’ level ofachievement, sometimes it does not.

Time sampling and event sampling are two methodsused to determine what happens in the classroom.

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage

Reflections

Teacher dispositions are important factors indetermining the teachers’ effectiveness. Reflectupon your disposition. Which are you strong areasand which areas need improvement? What is yourplan for improvement?

Teaching Today, 8e

Armstrong, Henson and Savage